Principles of the 1948 National Health Service

Principles of the 1948 National Health Service This assignment will outline the main principles of the 1948 National Health Service and will provide a commentary on the organisation and structure of the NHS. To begin this assignment will provide context by briefly exploring healthcare provision prior to the development and implementation of the NHS. Healthcare Pre-NHS Godber (1988) suggests that prior to the development of the NHS the Poor Law had provided health care support for the indigent in Britain for nearly a century and this included institutions and infirmary wards with a medical officer in charge to provide healthcare with the larger ones gradually taking on the functions of general hospitals for the acutely ill. Voluntary hospitals, which were often run by charitable organisations developed specialist services. Hospitals for patients with communicable diseases, tuberculosis, and mental illness and handicap had long been provided by local authorities; originally for public safety. Hospital surveys carried out during the Second World War revealed not only shortages of beds and buildings in a poor state, but that services were not provided in the areas which most needed them (Powell, 1992). From 1911 personal health care for low income workers was provided through National Health Insurance; however this did not cover hospital care. Other medical care was often delivered by general practitioners and payment for services was a matter for the individual, therefore it was often the rich or affluent that had access to healthcare rather than the lower classes. The Beveridge Report of 1942; which was a very influential report on social insurance and allied services, identified five evils within the society of the day: want, ignorance, disease, squalor and idleness. It was recommended in this report that a compulsory system of state insurance (to which employers, employees and the state would contribute) would be established to cover sickness, unemployment, retirement pensions and support for young families (National Archives, 2011a). The Beveridge Report (1942) pointed to the establishment of a comprehensive national health service as a necessary underpinning to a national social insurance scheme. The Labour Party had a long-standing commitment to a national health service and when they came into office in July 1945, Aneurin Bevan was appointed Minister of Health. Within a matter of weeks, Bevan produced a plan for a fully nationalized and regionalized National Health Service (National Archive, 2011b). At the conclusion of the Second World War Britons wanted a change in how healthcare was delivered particularly as medical care had made big advances in the war, soldiers had been offered higher standards of care than they were likely to encounter after demobilisation (Portillo, 1998). Civil servants and politicians had identified a growing momentum towards change and began looking at opportunities for transformation in how health care was provided. The National Health Service Britains National Health Service came into effect on the 5th of July 1948; it was the first health system to supply free medical care to the whole population and the first healthcare provision that was based not on an insurance principle but on the provision of services available to everyone (Klein, 2006). The transformation from fragmented and inadequate care provision to a structured and accessible body was unique and although planning had taken many years with varying obstacles; such as the outbreak of war and changes in political leadership, the implementation of a progressive and universal way of delivering care to all was finally introduced. As such, the new health service arguably constituted the single biggest organizational change and greatest improvement in health care ever experienced in the nations history (Webster, 1998). The NHS brought together all of the hospitals; regardless of ownership, and also the doctors, nurses, pharmacists, opticians and dentists that were once paid through charity or private funds into one organization. The Main Principles of the NHS Underpinning the NHS is a set of core principles and Bevan (1952) stated that the essence of a satisfactory health service is that the rich and the poor are treated alike, that poverty is not a disability, and wealth is not advantaged. With the development of a national health service the three main core principles cited by Bevan (1948) were that it met the needs of everyone, it should be free at the point of delivery and that it should be based on clinical need, not on the ability to pay. These principles ensured that every member of the British nation from young to old and from rich to poor were able to receive free health care for any medical condition, a phenomena that was unusual to say the least in comparison to how heath care had been delivered previously. The introduction of the National Health Service ensured medical treatment and poor health was not overshadowed by concern regarding finances and payment or that members of society lived in fear of medical expenses they could not afford. Beckett (2004) suggests that within a month of the vesting day of the National Health Service, in 1948, 97 per cent of the general public were signed up for treatment. This was viewed as a triumph for the minister of health, Aneurin Bevan, as it was perceived that he had built a system of care and disease prevention on a set of principles never seen before in any global society. These core principles ensured that everyone would have their healthcare needs met and even today the three principles remain the foundations from which modern health care services are delivered; in essence homeless people requiring care for frostbite or dental pain can receive access to health care as can wealthy property developers who have had a skiing accident or have the need for a wisdom tooth to be removed. The National Health Service may be perceived to be free to those requiring medical care and treatment, however the service requires funding to ensure practitioners employed are pad and that resources such as medicines, equipment and treatment areas are funded. To do this from inception the NHS has been funded by a system of taxation levied by the government, contributions are made through systems of national insurance contributions and income tax with small amounts being made through private practice under the NHS umbrella (Rivett, 1998). From 1948: The structure of the NHS Under the 1946 National Health Service Act, it was recommended that the health minister had the duty to promote in England and Wales a comprehensive health service which was to be developed with the purpose of improving the physical and mental health of the population and to oversee the move towards prevention, diagnosis and treatment of disease and illness. The services to be provided to meet these aims were to be free of charge and for the first time, the Minister of Health was made personally accountable to Parliament for hospital and other specialised services in addition to being indirectly responsible for family practitioner and local health services (Levitt et al., 1999). He was indirectly responsible for family practitioner and local health services. The structure of the newly formed National Health meant that all hospitals were nationalised and they were managed by either regional hospital boards or boards of governors who were accountable directly to the minister for health. Funding was provided directly by the ministry of health to the regional health boards and this in turn was given to the hospital management committees who had the responsibility for the management of budgets and funding for services (Levitt et al., 1999). As family practitioner services had refused to be managed and overseen by the newly formed National Health Service and Ministry of Health, executive councils were formed to ensure services such as general medical, dental and ophthalmic resources were delivered, these were referred to as Primary Care services. Local authority departments were made responsible for community health services, including health visitors and district nurses, vaccinations and immunisations, maternal and child welfare, ambulance services and services for the mentally ill and those with learning disabilities who were not in hospital (Bristol Royal Infirmary Inquiry, 2001). From 1948: The Changing Organisation of the NHS During the early stages of the NHS it is identified that there was a three part structure that had three branches which included; hospitals, primary care and local authority health services. This structure prevailed until 1974 when a more integrated arrangement was introduced which held three distinct levels of management at a regional, area and district level. A change of government to conservative leadership in the 1970 general election meant that the three part structure of the NHS that had been prevalent since the beginning of the service implementation became replaced in favour of new local authority control. General practitioners, hospitals, health centres and nursing services were brought under the control of a single area health authority which reported to regional health authorities (National Archives, 2011c). An American economist in the 1980s produced a highly critical report of the NHS suggesting that it was inefficient, riddled with perverse incentives and also that it had become a culture that was resistant to change (Enthoven, 1985). Due to the damning nature of this report the organisation of the NHS once again changed and it was suggested by Enthoven (1985) that the NHS would be more efficient if it was organized on something more like economic market principles. Enthoven (1985) argued for a split between purchaser and provider, so that Health Authorities could exercise more effective control over costs and production as a result the NHS administration was broken up into trusts from which authorities bought services. The role of Regional Health Authorities was taken over by 8 regional offices of the NHS management executive and this process ensured that the NHS became truly a nationally administered and centralized service (Klein, 2006). With changing governments there has been ongoing change reflected within the organizational structure of the NHS. Within recent years the labour government had attempted to alter the structure of the NHS by introducing strategic health authorities and Primary Care Trusts. In recent months with the election of the coalition conservative and liberal government yet more new organizational changes to the NHS have been identified. Ramesh (2011) has identified that the NHS will undergo a radical pro-market shakeup with hospitals, private healthcare providers and family doctors competing for patients who will be able to choose treatment and care in plans laid out by the government today. These changes will aim to reduce the numbers of management staff that are present within the current labour determined legacy within the NHS and the new approach will also allow NHS hospitals to chase private patients as long as the money is demonstrably ploughed back into the health service (Ramesh, 2011). Andrew Lansley, the health secretary for the current coalition government presented to parliament in July 2010 a white paper which set out ambitious plans for the NHS. These plans had a simple aim: to deliver health outcomes for patients which are among the best in the world, harnessing the knowledge, innovation and creativity of patients, communities and frontline staff in order to do so (Lansley, 2010). The White Paper, Liberating the NHS (Department of Health, 2010) suggests that it will abolish all of Englands 152 primary care trusts, which currently plan services and decide how money should be spent; these radical proposals would save the taxpayer more than  £10bn over the next decade and under the plans, GPs will be responsible for buying in patient care from 2013, with a new NHS commissioning board overseeing the process (Department of Health, 2010). Conclusion The work of Beveridge and Bevan in the 1940s was undoubtedly pioneering and visionary with many members of society being able to access healthcare for the first time regardless of their financial means. The implementation of the NHS ensured that healthcare was available to everybody regardless of means and that it would be free from the point of delivery, principles that remain in essence part of modern day healthcare and National Health Services. The NHS has seen many governmental changes since 1948, it has been re-organized and the structure has altered, however regardless of this it has remained a service that all British people can access and a service that many other countries have been unable to replicate. The foundation of the NHS was challenging and there were many critics, however the foresight of political leaders such as Bevan and Beveridge ensured health care remains free at the point of delivery in this country.

Infancy & Early Childhood Development Paper Essay

Infancy as well as early childhood is the actually the foundation of what we will become as an adult. Children are like sponges and will absorbs a much information that you will provide them being through nature or nurture. Parents and guardians are essential key players in making sure a child is not only psysically healthy, but is given all essential development tools to succeed in life. They way we interact with children when they are young as a family unit is very important and influencial that will affect on how they develop. Therefore, it’s crutial that we as parents realize that there is no right or wrong way of raising a child, however, we need to understand what a vital and important role we play in a childs life. How families affect the development of infants and young children When a child is born into this world is only requirement is being loved, staying clean and healthy. Families play a huge role in a child’s development from the moment it enters into this world. As soon as infants come into this world they experience two categories of developmental changes the two categories are experienced-dependent and experience-expectant. â€Å"Early childhood experience is in two categories; experience-dependent (cultural-bound) and experience-expectant (universal) that aid in brain growth (Berger, 2008)†. Experience-expentact is when you involve the nervous system and the brain will develop a certain way where normal cognition is dependent on environmental exposure. In experience-dependent is when a child’s development and cognition reponse is from new experience that he or she will experience throughout their lifetime. A young child’s brain growth is depenet of both of these two categories in order to develop a healthy cognitive and emotional psychological development. Infants progress and sensorimotor intelligence process is formed by knowledge and experienmentation. All children at a young age depending on their age level love to touch, feel, and explorer everything around them. That is why parents and guardians will assist in teach their child through objects and reflecting what the object may be called or do. This is how family members are influence in a child language development. According to Berger (2008), by one an infant can speak about two words, and by the age of  two languages explodes, and at the toddler ages a child capable of speaking in short sentences. Parenting Sytles Parenting styles differ in every family individualy because of their heritage, religion, environment. However, there are three different styles and used by parents they are authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive. The authoritarian parent will control the childs environment and evaluate every behavior the child makes with standard rules. If the child does not abide by the rules of the house they will recived some form of punishment. According to Baumrind (1991), these parents are â€Å"status and obedience oriented, and expect rules to be followed without explanation.† For some may thinks this an unfair way of bringing up a child, but for some individuals this just a normal way of pareting. An authoritative parent will have some form of house hold rules but will be a little more democratic and open minded. They are nurturing and will listen to a childs needs and wants and explore option outside the rules and may make an exception. â€Å"Discipline with the authoritative parent is more supportive than punitive, as the parent wants the child to be assertive, socially responsible, self-regulating, and cooperative (Baumrind, 1991). The final parenting stule is permissive which very flexible way of bring up a child. They will consult with the child and make very little demand on the child. This style of parenting will not impact or alter the child, however is more a psychology control. The ultimate goal for the parent is to manipulate the child in your desire results without showing any power or authority. Early Childhood Education and Cognitive Development A child’s cognitive development is highly dependent on intellectual and social stimulation.Early childhood education is typically the first instance in which a child is exposed to a learningatmosphere that is socially stimulating as well as intellectually stimulating. Whether a child is playing with other classmates during recess or practicing the alphabet, he or she is developing ona cognitive level. Young children often play  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœpretend’ activities such as playing house or cooking Infancy and Childhood Development Paper 5without any real food (mud, grass, etc.) These young children are using symbolism to applytheir ‘pretend’ activities to situations that they have witnessed in real life. This process of usinginference to create symbolic activities is just one example of how early childhood education caninfluence a young child’s cognitive development.Children also become more aware of the reactions of others while in an educationalatmosphere. In an educational atmosphere children work closely together when learning newsubjects in the classroom. Most early childhood education programs are heavily interactive andinvolve the communication and collaboration of all students within the classroom. This aspect of early childhood education helps the child develop social skills and also influences the ability torecognize the emotions and reactions of fellow classmates. As a result, the child should begin toacknowledge socially acceptable behaviors versus socially unacceptable behaviors (Seifert,2004).Another important aspect of early childhood education is the distinct differences thatexist between the child’s home environments versus his or her school environment. A child’s parents may be uninvolved, but when they begin early childhood education, the child is exposedto a completely different environment that he or she may not be accustomed to. The child maynot have had the opportunity to develop properly within his or her home environment, but theeducational environment gives the child a chance to grow and develop cognitively and sociallyConclusionThe development of an infant and young child can be quite complex. Every child is borninto a distinct atmosphere and the child must then learn to adjust and adapt to this atmosphere.Some children may be at a disadvantage because of a lack of involvement and attention from Infancy and Childhood Development Paper 6 parents or caregivers. Every parent has his or her own parenting style, which can have asubstantial and lasting impression on the child’s development. As the child begins pre-school or kindergarten, he or she must once again learn to adapt to a new environment apart from their home lives. Within the educational atmosphere children continue to develop socially andcognitively as they begin to interact with classmates and peers on a regular basis. No twochildren develop in the same way. Varying parenting styles, family values, home environments,and educational environments can  have an influence on how a child grows and develops betweeninfancy and early childhood.

Ethnocentrism Across Cultures Film Analysis of Bride and...

Bride and Prejudice and Ethnocentrism Across Cultures People who travel abroad always have a better understanding of what it means to meet new cultures and the experience of living in culturally different societies. While visiting a different society might be ideal, as a first step one may watch a foreign film that describes peculiarities of a different culture we are not familiar with. In this paper, I will discuss my experience of watching such a movie. The film I chose for this task is Bride and Prejudice (2005). It was made by a British director of Indian descent Gurinder Chadha and stars American, British, and Indian actors and actresses, including Miss World 1994 and the Bollywood top star Aishwarya Rai. The plot takes place in several cities, including Los Angeles, New York, London, Bombay, and Amritsar, and addresses such questions as pride, prejudice, ethnocentrism, cultural imperialism, and love. This is an adaptation of Jane Austins famous novel with a Bollywood approach and style though the film was made in English. It tells the story of a rich American snob Will Darcy who wants to open a hotel in an Indian city and visits the family of Bakshis in Amritsar. It is an Indian family where the mother is trying to marry her four daughters to rich men. One of them is Lalita. She is an outspoken, intelligent, and beautiful woman. Darcy and Lalita clash initially but love eventually blossoms between the two. Despite so many cultural barriers between America and

Use Of Wideband Microwave Imaging And Detection Of Brain...

The use of wideband microwave imaging could potentially be used to diagnose brain injuries. Brain injuries are common in today’s world and can lead to many health concerns, such as illness, disabilities, and even death. Brain injuries can come in many forms, such as contusions, strokes, tumours, infections, and diseases to name a few. Brain injuries, however, can progress over time if not monitored. This increases the demand for quick and immediate diagnosis and management for injuries. This is where the use of wideband microwave imaging comes into use. Essentially, it could provide a way to perform head imaging in a timely manner and can thus produce a treatment method for patients quickly. Imaging technologies do exist that are able to perform scans of the brain for detection of brain injuries. Some of these, such as computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), are used for the imaging of Alzheimer disease. (Johnson et al 1) But issues arise with these tech nologies due to their cost, time consumption, size, and lack of mobility. So development of the use of a wideband microwave imaging system could lead to various solutions to the aforementioned issues of the other technologies. For example, the wideband microwave imaging system could be developed for on the go use and could be used for constant monitoring of patients with head injuries. This is just one a few advantageous perspectives of developing a wideband microwave imaging system. This paper willShow MoreRelatedNokias Human Resources System144007 Words   |  577 Pagesregistrant has elected to follow. Item 17 n Item 18 n If this is an annual report, indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a shell company (as defined in Rule 12b ­2 of the Exchange Act). Yes n No ≠¤ TABLE OF CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION AND USE OF CERTAIN TERMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 FORWARD ­LOOKING STATEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 ITEM 1. ITEM